References

1. 1
   Swen JJ, van der Wouden CH, Manson LE, et al. A 12-gene pharmacogenetic panel to prevent adverse drug reactions: an open-label, multicentre, controlled, cluster-randomised crossover implementation study. Lancet. 2023;401(10374):347–356. doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01841-4Used for: 30% lower odds of clinically relevant ADRs (OR 0.70); 6,944 patients; 12 genes; 39 drugs.
2. 2
   Van Driest SL, Shi Y, Bowton EA, et al. Clinically actionable genotypes among 10,000 patients with preemptive pharmacogenomic testing. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2014;95(4):423–431. doi.org/10.1038/clpt.2013.229Used for: 91% of the first 9,589 PREDICT patients had at least one actionable variant across five implemented drug-gene pairs.
3. 3
   Ji Y, Skierka JM, Blommel JH, et al. Preemptive pharmacogenomic testing for precision medicine: a comprehensive analysis of five actionable pharmacogenomic genes using next-generation DNA sequencing and a customized CYP2D6 genotyping cascade. J Mol Diagn. 2016;18(3):438–445. doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoldx.2016.01.003Used for: 99% of 1,013 participants with at least one actionable variant in five genes (Mayo Clinic RIGHT).
4. 4
   Elliott LS, Henderson JC, Neradilek MB, Moyer NA, Ashcraft KC, Thirumaran RK. Clinical impact of pharmacogenetic profiling with a clinical decision support tool in polypharmacy home health patients: a prospective pilot randomized controlled trial. PLoS One. 2017;12(2):e0170905. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170905Used for: 52% fewer rehospitalizations and 42% fewer ED visits at 60 days; pilot trial of 110 patients.
5. 5
   Chenchula S, Atal S, Uppugunduri CRS. A review of real-world evidence on preemptive pharmacogenomic testing for preventing adverse drug reactions: a reality for future health care. Pharmacogenomics J. 2024;24(2):9. doi.org/10.1038/s41397-024-00326-1Used for: ADRs linked to 3–6% of U.S. admissions; $13,994–$19,685 to treat ADRs in hospital (non-ICU to ICU); almost 50% of spontaneously reported ADRs may have identifiable causes, most likely explained by genetic variability; PGx-annotated drugs in about 30% of ADRs at admission.
6. 6
   El Rouby N, Allen JD, Koep T, et al. Multi-gene pharmacogenomic testing in a community-based setting is feasible and reduces total healthcare costs. Clin Transl Sci. 2025;18(12):e70418. doi.org/10.1111/cts.70418Used for: 1,042 Medicare Advantage patients tested; a total-cost-of-care analysis of 548 tested patients versus matched untested controls showed a trend toward net savings of about $1,827 per member per year (observational).
7. 7
   David V, Fylan B, Bryant E, Smith H, Sagoo GS, Rattray M. An analysis of pharmacogenomic-guided pathways and their effect on medication changes and hospital admissions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Genet. 2021;12:698148. doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2021.698148Used for: Hospital admission in 11.5% (PGx-guided) vs. 20.1% (usual care) across five studies; pooled OR 0.5; authors report a 43% reduction; high heterogeneity.
8. 8
   Morris SA, Alsaidi AT, Verbyla A, et al. Cost effectiveness of pharmacogenetic testing for drugs with Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) guidelines: a systematic review. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2022;112(6):1318–1328. doi.org/10.1002/cpt.2754Used for: 71% of 108 studies (39 drugs) found PGx testing cost-effective.
9. 9
   Pereira NL, Cresci S, Angiolillo DJ, et al. CYP2C19 genetic testing for oral P2Y12 inhibitor therapy: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2024;150(6):e129–e150. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38899464/Used for: Scientific statement concluding the evidence to date supports CYP2C19 testing before oral P2Y12 inhibitors in ACS or PCI.
10. 10
    Lee CR, Luzum JA, Sangkuhl K, et al. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium guideline for CYP2C19 genotype and clopidogrel therapy: 2022 update. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2022;112(5):959–967. doi.org/10.1002/cpt.2526Used for: Clopidogrel prescribing recommendations by CYP2C19 phenotype. Allele frequencies from Dean L, Kane M. Clopidogrel Therapy and CYP2C19 Genotype. Medical Genetics Summaries, NCBI; updated 2022 (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK84114).
11. 11
    Brody DJ, Gu Q. Antidepressant use among adults: United States, 2015–2018. NCHS Data Brief, no. 377. National Center for Health Statistics; 2020. www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db377.htmUsed for: About 13% of U.S. adults used an antidepressant in the past 30 days.
12. 12
    Oslin DW, Lynch KG, Shih MC, et al. Effect of pharmacogenomic testing for drug-gene interactions on medication selection and remission of symptoms in major depressive disorder: the PRIME Care randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;328(2):151–161. doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.9805Used for: 1,944 veterans; PGx-guided patients received fewer medications with predicted drug-gene interactions.
13. 13
    Brown LC, Stanton JD, Bharthi K, Maruf AA, Müller DJ, Bousman CA. Pharmacogenomic testing and depressive symptom remission: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective, controlled clinical trials. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2022;112(6):1303–1317. doi.org/10.1002/cpt.2748Used for: RR 1.46 for remission across the randomized trials (RR 1.41 overall; 13 trials, 4,767 patients).
14. 14
    Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium (CPIC). Guidelines. clinpgx.org/cpic/guidelinesUsed for: Prescribing guidelines for actionable drug-gene pairs; 29 guidelines covering 35 genes and more than 160 drugs (CPIC update, October 2025).
15. 15
    U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Table of Pharmacogenomic Biomarkers in Drug Labeling. www.fda.gov/drugs/science-and-research-drugs/table-pharmacogenomic-biomarkers-drug-labelingUsed for: Pharmacogenomic information in the labeling of hundreds of drugs.
16. 16
    U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Table of Pharmacogenetic Associations. www.fda.gov/medical-devices/precision-medicine/table-pharmacogenetic-associationsUsed for: Gene-drug associations recognized by the FDA.
17. 17
    FDA-approved prescribing information for clopidogrel (Plavix), codeine sulfate and citalopram (Celexa), via DailyMed. dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/Used for: Clopidogrel boxed warning (CYP2C19 poor metabolizers); codeine boxed warning (respiratory depression and death in children, many of them CYP2D6 ultrarapid metabolizers); citalopram 20 mg/day limit in CYP2C19 poor metabolizers.
18. 18
    Celemics product sheets: OncoRisk (OR-PS-v1.3), CancerScreen (CSS-PS-v1.3) and Liquid Biopsy (LB-PS-v1.4), 2025.Used for: Manufacturer reference specifications and analytical performance for the oncology panels.
19. 19
    Dutch Pharmacogenetics Working Group (DPWG) guidelines, Royal Dutch Pharmacists Association (KNMP). www.knmp.nl/dossiers/farmacogeneticaUsed for: Guidelines used to guide prescribing in the PREPARE trial.
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    National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). CYP2C19 genotype testing to guide clopidogrel use after ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack HealthTech guidance HTG724 (formerly DG59). Published 31 July 2024. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/htg724Used for: Recommends CYP2C19 genotype testing to guide clopidogrel after ischaemic stroke or TIA.

This page is for informational purposes and is not medical advice. Testing decisions and medication changes should be made by a treating clinician.